Immigration Policy Of America Politics Essay

Immigration Policy Of America Politics Essay Immigration has been part of legislation since the founding of the nation. In 1790, Congress established a process saying ones that are born in the United States become citizens automatically. The first federal law was passed in 1875 limiting immigration qualification in order to prohibit the entry of criminals and prostitutes. Currently, there are two forms of immigration: permanent admission and temporary admission. The ones that are allowed permanent admission are granted permanent resident and a green card. Permanent residents are allow working in the United States and are able to file for citizenship. In 2004, there were about 946,000 people that were admitted to the United States as a permanent resident. Temporary admission is for foreigners who want entry to the United States for a limited of time on behalf of a specific purpose such as visiting families, tourism, temporary work, or school. These people are classified as nonimmigrants. Temporary admissions are not allowed to a pply for United States citizenship. If they want to apply for citizenship through naturalization, they need to submit an additional application for permanent resident before they can do so. In 2004, 5 million people were granted temporary admission. Immigration policy in the United States reflects many goals. First, it serves to reunite many families by admitting family members from foreign countries. Second, due to labor shortage, United States can admit ones with a specific skill to fill up positions in occupations. Third, it provides a shelter for people that face the risk of political or religious persecution from their own country. Lastly, by letting people from foreign countries immigrate to United States, it allows us to become a more diverse nation. Even though United States has goals for immigrations, there are still many rules and regulations involved; not anyone can just enter United States and become permanent or temporary residents. United States may deny visas or admission on either the temporary admission or permanent admission for many reasons. Some reasons may be because of criminal records, health records, or terrorism concerns. Immediate family members of a United States citizens are allow immigrating to the U nited States without many limitations. Citizens of the United States are allowed to sponsor relatives for permanent residents under the family-sponsored preference program. According to Garnett Hardin in his paper called Lifeboat Ethnics: The Case against Helping the Poor, he thinks that United States should simply not provide aid to people in the poor countries. Hardin started out his essay with a metaphor comparing the earth to a grand spaceship. Hardin said, Since we all share life on this planetà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ no single person or institution has the right to destroy, waste, or use more than a fair share of its resources (402). Hardin is more practical rather than liberal. He imagined United States as a lifeboat and the people that are out in the ocean are the ones that want to immigrate to United States. Hardin says, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦we must recognize the limited capacity of any lifeboat. A nations land has a limited capacity to support a population and as the current energy crisis has shown us, in some ways we have already exceeded the carrying capacity of our land (403). The way that Hardin think is correct. United States have more people being born each day then people dying; if United States accepts anyone as an immigrant, the nation would not have enough land to support them. Furthermore, there are many lazy people in this world. As what Hardin was saying, lets assume that we have a fifty people capacity on our lifeboat. To be generous, we can make room for ten more making the total capacity of sixty people. If we can make room for ten more, then we would need to make room for the rest of them also. Pretty soon, the lifeboat is going to overfill and everyone can possibly drown. To make that short, if we take one person into the nation, we would need to take the rest. There is no point letting them into our nation if they are not going to make any contributions. I believe that United States should only take immigrants that can contribute to the nation. Currently, there are many permanent residents in this nation that does not make any contribution whatsoever. Many immigrants have the mentality that if their relatives in the United States are able to sponsor them to come over, then they can sponsor them for the rest of their lives. In my opinion, ones that have an education, have a specific reason to come over to the United States, and ones that can help out the nation are allow becoming permanent residents in the United States. In John Tierneys paper, Angels in America, he believes that the United States immigration policy is too strict causing many immigrants to come illegally. Tierney used his grandfather and an illegal immigrant, Angel Espinoza, as examples. Tierney thinks it is unfair that Espinoza is not allowed to apply for citizenship while others can. Tierney continued onto explaining Espinozas situation. Espinoza left farm just like Tierneys grandfather and came illegally to the United States with little education. Later, he married an American descendant from his native country just like what Tierneys grandfather did. Tierneys grandfather applied for United States citizenship afterward and got approved while Espinoza did not. Espinoza was once caught at the border and violated the law which made him ineligible for a green card and permanent residency. Tierney goes on to explaining how Espinoza and his grandfather both worked hard, chasing the Americans dream, to support their families. Espinoza ha d to go to work every day with the fear of being departed from the United States for working illegally but his grandfather did not had to go through that. Tierney believes that if one is willing to work to achieve their goals then they should be treated equally. Tierney said, Id like to see Republicans on Capitol Hill explain to Espinoza why hes less deserving than their immigrant ancestors, but thats probably too much to expect. Espinoza has a simpler wish: I would like them to tell my American daughter why her father cant stay with her' (704). I personally disagree with Tierneys idea of immigration. Just because one is hard working does not necessarily mean they deserve to be a United States citizen. I believe that in order to become a United States citizen, one must have a moral character, knowledge of the United States history and government, and willingness to support the United States politically and militarily. Because Espinoza was caught at the border at one point in time, h e does not have the moral character. Tierney stated, Its been argued that Mexicans are different from past immigrants because theyre closer to home and less likely to assimilate. Compared with other immigrants today, theyre less educated, and their children are more likely to get poor grades and drop out of school (703). As I stated before, if one does not have an education, they are less likely able to contribute to the United States and have knowledge of the history and government. There are over a million immigrants that enter the United States legally or illegally each year. Having immigrants allow employers to have cheap labor but in the meantime, as David Masci stated, American workers suffer because the newcomers take jobs and suppress wage levels. Many people also argued that native-born people are unwilling to do low-wage jobs but that has been proven wrong. According to Mark Krikorian, an executive director of the Center of Immigration Studies, said in the article Debate Over Immigration, In parts of the country with few immigrants, low-wage jobs still get done, and by native-born people. Americans are not unwilling to do such jobs, but we prefer not to do so. If these immigrants did not take these low-wage positions, native-born Americans will be forced to take these types of jobs. Krikorian also said, Employers could find Americans to do these jobs if they wanted to, but theyd have to provide training and raise wages to do so. It is just easier to all ow immigrants to take these positions. There are also arguments stating that immigrants are over-crowding the United States and preventing immigrants already here from assimilating into American society (Masci). Masci also said that immigrants came to United States in the past because they want to be here, but currently, immigrants immigrate here for job opportunities and the concept of freedom. A lot of immigrants from foreign countries have the mentality that if they come to the United States and not able to find a job then they can get governmental aid such as Welfare. I believe that these are the type of people that are not allowed to immigrate to the United States. They do not truly love the country, but instead they want to come here for the freedom and for a better environment. In conclusion, immigration is a problem in the United States. People from foreign countries want to come to the United States for freedom and job opportunities. With all these people coming over and taking jobs from the current Americans, it causes the citizens to suffer. The extra people that are immigrating to the United States are overcrowding the nation. It is making it harder for new immigrants to adapt to and experience the American society when there are so many new immigrants coming into the nation each year. United States need a more strict immigration policy in order to keep out all the criminals and prevent terrorism. I highly agree with Garnett Hardins view of immigration where we should keep out as many immigrants as possible, and I strongly disagree with Tierneys view of immigration. He thinks that the policy right now is too strict causing people to come illegally. Without a strict policy, our nation would be in more danger due to criminals and terrorism.

An “Essay” On Child Labour

Human trafficking is described as the â€Å"trade in humans†. Common trade purposes include sexual slavery, surrogacy, forced labour and extraction of organs or tissues. Child labour is described as a form of work that can be hazardous towards their development and education, and could damage their physical and mental health. Some examples include the illegal drug trade, prostitution and forced recruitment for armed conflict. Trafficking represents an estimated $32 billion a year in international trade.In 2008, the United Nations estimated that almost 2.5 million from 127 different countries are being trafficked into 137 other countries all over the world. Another report also estimated that 12. 3 million people were working as forced labourers or were sex slaves, and that 98% of them were women. Along the Ivory Coast in Africa, many children are working in cocoa fields or plants. Most of them were told that they would be paid if they would work for their company and that the m oney earned would go back to their family, which convinced many to through with the process.They were brought out of their village, and thought they were going on an adventure and that it would be a fun and exciting experience. But when they arrived, they realised that they were far away from home, and that it wouldn't be as fun as they had imagined. According to the BBC, approximately 1. 8 million children in West Africa are working in the cocoa industry. The chocolate industry is worth more than ?56. 5 billion a year and 40% of the people working on the Ivory Coast live below the poverty line.Children have been seen at risk while holding various weapons and pesticides and are forced to work from early in the morning to late at night non-stop. The standards of living for the workers are horrible. They sleep in a small, crowded area with other workers where the floor is often damp with urine, making it hard for them to breathe. They get fed just enough to keep them alive and it is i mpossible to escape. They do not earn money and will be lucky if they ever see their parents or family members again.Experiences like these leave a victim with man bad memories that they will never be able to forget. Many could end up suffering with post-traumatic stress disorder, and will get unwanted flashbacks. Human trafficking and child labour affects victims both physically and mentally, and needs to be abolished as soon as possible. The way they are treated is not how they should be and this needs to be dealt with immediately.

Andrew Wolf On Adolescence Child Development And...

Andrew Wolf on Adolescence: Child Development and Psychological Theory Get Out of My Life, But First Could You Drive Me and Cheryl to the Mall?: A Parent’s Guide to the New Teenager by Anthony E. Wolf, Ph.D. addresses the challenges that face teenagers and their parents. Adolescence, which is usually attributed to the time between 13 and 19 years of age, is the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence, is addressed by Wolf (Myers, 2014, p. 140). Wolf offers insight to adolescence and offers parents suggestions on navigating this period. This revised edition includes information regarding technology and sexual orientation, as well as an updated section on drugs and drinking. Aspects of different psychological theories are seen in Wolf’s writings. As well, the social, emotional, cognitive, and physical development and the impact on the teen are communicated. Relationship to Child Development (Social, Emotional, Cognitive and/or Physical) In Get Out of My Life, But First Could You Drive Me and Cheryl to the Mall?: A Parent’s Guide to the New Teenager, Wolf takes on the aspects of child development; biosocial, cognitive, and psychosocial. The social, emotional, cognitive, and physical development of the teen are discussed. Physical Development Physical development, or biosocial development, encompasses the growth and changes that happen in a person’s body. Included in biosocial development are the genetic, nutritional, and healthShow MoreRelatedpreschool Essay46149 Words   |  185 PagesCalifornia Preschool Learning Foundations Volume 2 Visual and Performing Arts Physical Development Health Publishing Information The California Preschool Learning Foundations (Volume 2) was developed by the Child Development Division, California Department of Education. This publication was edited by Faye Ong, working in cooperation with Laura Bridges and Desiree Soto, Consultants, Child Development Division. It was designed and prepared for printing by the staff of CDE Press, with theRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 Pages91 4 Emotions and Moods 97 What Are Emotions and Moods? 98 The Basic Emotions 100 †¢ The Basic Moods: Positive and Negative Affect 100 †¢ The Function of Emotions 102 †¢ Sources of Emotions and Moods 103 Emotional Labor 108 Affective Events Theory 110 Emotional Intelligence 112 The Case for EI 113 †¢ The Case Against EI 114 †¢ Emotion Regulation 115 OB Applications of Emotions and Moods 115 Selection 116 †¢ Decision Making 116 †¢ Creativity 116 †¢ Motivation 117 †¢ Leadership 117 †¢ Negotiation 117Read MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesINTRODUCTION 1 3 THE CRITICAL ROLE OF MANAGEMENT SKILLS The Importance of Competent Managers 6 The Skills of Effective Managers 7 Essential Management Skills 8 What Are Management Skills? 9 Improving Management Skills 12 An Approach to Skill Development 13 Leadership and Management 16 Contents of the Book 18 Organization of the Book 19 Practice and Application 21 Diversity and Individual Differences 21 Summary 23 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL 24 Diagnostic Survey and Exercises 24 Personal AssessmentRead More_x000C_Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis355457 Words   |  1422 PagesLuis Obispo Australia †¢ Brazil †¢ Canada †¢ Mexico †¢ Singapore †¢ Spain †¢ United Kingdom †¢ United States Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis, Third Edition Roxy Peck, Chris Olsen, Jay Devore Acquisitions Editor: Carolyn Crockett Development Editor: Danielle Derbenti Assistant Editor: Beth Gershman Editorial Assistant: Ashley Summers Technology Project Manager: Colin Blake Marketing Manager: Joe Rogove Marketing Assistant: Jennifer Liang Marketing Communications Manager: Jessica Perry

A Philosophical Criticism of Augustine and Aquinas Essay

A Philosophical Criticism of Augustine and Aquinas: The Relationship of Soul and Body The relationship of the human soul and physical body is a topic that has mystified philosophers, scholars, scientists, and mankind as a whole for centuries. Human beings, who are always concerned about their place as individuals in this world, have attempted to determine the precise nature or state of the physical form. They are concerned for their well-being in this earthly environment, as well as their spiritual well-being; and most have been perturbed by the suggestion that they cannot escape the wrongs they have committed while in their physical bodies. Throughout the evolution of philosophic thought, there have been many†¦show more content†¦I will focus on proving the worth of Augustines view of the soul and body relationship, with its consequent effect on redemption. The Augustinean theorys strength lies in its focus, which is more on spiritual matters and less on nature. I believe that the Thomistic view reveals that the very order of nature itself makes the goal of redemption unattainable; Augustine stresses the importance of the intellect part of the soul and mans will in obtaining redemption. St. Augustines view of the relationship between the physical body and the intellectual soul places primary focus on the independence rather than the interdependence of the two. He argues that God produces the intellectual soul prior to its entrance into the human body; thus intellectual souls have an absolute nature unrelated to matter, which enables humans to find redemption through the soul despite past sins. He offers many reasons for his argument. The image of God is implanted in mans intellectual soul, which is created before the body. Augustine states that the soul is the higher part of man (DArcy,230), and the source of all movements, including sense perceptions (Leary,52). He sees this higher part as the life of the body; God is the life of this soul, and truth is God. It stands to reason, therefore, that the intellectual soul is bestowed its strength from truth. Because truth resides in the intellect part of the soul, the desire of thisShow MoreRelatedThe Mystery of the Blessed Trinity718 Words   |  3 Pageswithout implying plurality if it is triune. (It Takes Three†¦ p. 200) Echoes Aquinas by emphasizing the equality of the Persons or Dignities: All the Dignities must be equal in essence and nature, otherwise they would be accidents and unable to exist in themselves, by themselves, and would therefore be imperfect. Hence, each Dignity is essentially identified with and includes all the other Dignities. (p. 202) Aquinas (supports Hames): Revelation cannot go against Reason. The Trinity is Revealed:Read MoreEvolution And Its Impact On Students Worldview1310 Words   |  6 Pagesof historical, hermeneutical, and theological elements. 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In this paper I will examine and distinguish the conceptual frameworks of both philosophical positions, detailing the â€Å"strong† and â€Å"weak† theses of natural law ; while in turn also examining the implications ofRead MorePhilosophy and Christian Theology8519 Words   |  35 Pagesimportant philosophical implications or presuppositions. In this article we will take a closer look at some of the central doctrines and concepts, and their philosophical relevance. Of course, many philosophically laden doctrines and concepts are relevant to Christianity, and we cannot discuss them all here. Rather, our focus will be on those concepts and doctrines that are distinctively Christian, and which have been the focus of a good deal of recent discussion in the philosophical literatureRead MoreBranches of Philosophy8343 Words   |  34 PagesAncient Greece. Beginning in the late 19th century, mathematicians such as Frege focused on a mathematical treatment of logic, and today the subject of logic has two broad divisions: mathematical logic (formal symbolic logic) and what is now called philosophical logic. †¢ Philosophy of mind deals with the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body, and is typified by disputes between dualism and materialism. In recent years there have been increasing similarities, between this branch of philosophy

Neftalí Ricardo Reyes Basoalto, Famously Known As Pablo

Neftalà ­ Ricardo Reyes Basoalto, famously known as Pablo Neruda, is a remarkable Chilean poet born on July 12, 1904. He grew up in Temuco which is located in southern Chile. â€Å"Neruda is the most renowned poet of modern Latin American literature and one of the major poets of the twentieth century. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1971† (McDuffie). â€Å"Numerous critics have praised Neruda as the greatest poet writing in the Spanish language during his lifetime† (â€Å"Pablo Neruda†). Pablo Neruda worked to show the social injustices happening in his country. In addition to this, Neruda’s poetry is difficult to understand because of his use of language, and although his works have been translated to English, one will never thoroughly†¦show more content†¦Furthermore, Neruda wanted to show the people from his country how they should view themselves and be content: â€Å"He spoke to them of their mountains and trees, of their r ivers and nocturnal flowers† (Garcia XI).It is obvious that their country is filled of beautiful features and they should to be proud. Ultimately, in Neruda Chileans had someone who whom they could identify with above the distinctive lives they all lived. It’s easier to relate to someone who has been through similar things as you specially coming from the same country because you are able to connect with them on a different level. Between 1927 and 1935, â€Å"the government put Pablo Neruda in charge of a number of honorary consulships, which took him to Burma, Ceylon, Java, Singapore, Buenos Aires, Barcelona, and Madrid† (â€Å"Pablo Neruda - Biographical†). During this time he began writing, Residencia en la Tierra, which contain several poems. These poems seem unrealistic because they give a sense of fantasy. One of them being â€Å"CABALLO DE LOS SUEÑOS,† this particular piece is about a unicorns and rainbows and how he travels to a differen t dimension. One may lose themselves in this type of poetry because we may want to be reminded of our childhood, a time where we believed things were real but in actuality were part of our imagination. Neruda was a communist who wanted to represent his country,

Health Care System of United States Free Essays

Today†s health care system is in a constant state of fluctuation and commotion. It is sometimes difficult for the health care consumer to identify a valuable resource when they need one. The purpose of this paper is to explore one of the many health care resources that are available in the greater Philadelphia area and then visit this site to learn more about it. We will write a custom essay sample on Health Care System of United States or any similar topic only for you Order Now Philadelphia, in itself is an outstanding resource to the people of the area. In terms of healthcare resource implications this is true. There are numerous teaching hospitals, museums, clinics, and educational centers in this region. I choose to learn more about Planned Parenthood, a well-known organization in this area as well as nationally. Upon entering the clinic I knew very little about Planned Parenthood. It turned out that what I knew was only a fraction of what Planned Parenthood is really all about. According to the chairperson and president of PP, young people rely on Planned Parenthood to be truthful, confidential and non-judgmental. Women and men are grateful that it is an affordable resource, accessible to all, and respectful of all persons† decisions. Patients fell safe there because they provide safe medical care by trained professionals. Parents can feel a sense of ease because they know that their children are learning correct and valuable information concerning sex. Both donors and investors can feel confident that their gifts are an investment in the health and well being of the men, women, and children in their community. This paper will relay the information received from the site visit to Planned Parenthood in Media, Pennsylvania. It will discuss the mission, services, and financial aspects of Planned Parenthood. Mission Statement. The mission of Planned Parenthood Southeastern Pennsylvania (PPSP) is to protect and enhance reproductive freedom, to increase access to reproductive health care services and information, and to promote sexual health. This mission provides the foundation of PPSP†s services and programs that they offer to the approximately 43,000 men, women, and children of the Delaware Valley. Planned Parenthood was found by a registered nurse named Margaret Sanger in the early 1900†³s. Her belief and reason for founding PP was this, â€Å"†¦ he first right of a child (is) to be wanted, to be desired, to be planned for with an intensity of love†¦ † (Planned Parenthood, 1999). Sanger was tired of watching women young and old die from complications of pregnancies due to lack of education and health care and was tired of seeing unwanted pregnancies carried to term because women did not know their options. Her goal was to both educate and provide for these women the reproductive services that were necessary for what she called reproductive freedom. Benefits of Planned Parenthood Planned Parenthood provides numerous programs and services to the people of Southeastern Pennsylvania. I spoke with a woman named Megan (no last name was provided). She informed me of these services and programs, and helped me to gain a better understanding of what PP really is and does. Health Services. Planned Parenthood provides their services to women as well as men- it is a resource to be utilized by all. It is a common misconception that PP is for women only. They offer reproductive health care for men, women, and teens. They supply every FDA approved method of reversible birth control. These include natural family planning methods, Norplant, Depo-Provera, Birth control Pill, IUD (intrauterine device), condoms, Diaphragm, and cervical caps. Something that they offer is emergency contraception or the â€Å"morning after pill. † It decreases the likelihood of becoming pregnant even after the conception, because it decreases the healthy nature of the uterine wall. It is only effective within seventy-two hours following conception. They also offer walk-in pregnancy testing, options counseling and referrals to abortion clinics and adoption agencies. In the Media office, there are three nurse practitioners on staff who provide complete gynecological examinations including Pap tests. There is a physician who is affiliated with their office; he comes in at least twice a month or upon appointment to review all cases. The NP†s provide breast health checks and teach breast self-examinations. Mid-life services are provided for menopausal women as well hormone replacement therapy. Testing and treatment of sexually transmitted infections for men and women and confidential and anonymous HIV/AIDS testing are available as well. Planned Parenthood does perform first trimester abortions. They also offer a number of other health services such as cholesterol and blood pressure screening. Educational services. PPSP offers educational programs to pre-teens, teens, parents, and caregivers on topics of human sexuality, including health care, family planning, relationships, and HIV/Aids. There are teen peer education groups as well as Latino community workshops provided by bilingual/ bicultural educators. PPSP provides a complete resource center (bookstore and library) which provides a collection of literature on reproduction health care, sexuality, etc. Advocacy. PPSP urges political action for families/ planning and other reproductive health issues by participating in Lobby Days in Harrisburg and Washington. They are also involved in letter writing campaigns and news alerts to inform and motivate the public to become more involved in reproductive health care issues. Costs. All of the above listed services are available to all who enter the clinic at a small fee. The exception is made in the case of children who are thirteen to seventeen; their services and birth control pills are offered at no charge. In all other cases the fees for these products and services are quite low; for example, a routine gynecological examination examinations cost about thirty dollars. PP accepts most insurance plans and Medicaid, including Keystone HMO, PA Blue Cross- Blue Shield, and Personal Choice. They accept US Healthcare for surgical procedures only. Funding Revenue. From July 1, 1996 to June 30, 1007, Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania brought in nearly six million dollars ($5,915,000) in revenue. This included nearly $2. 5 million from patient health and surgical services, 1. million from government grants and medical assistance. Funding Expenditures. In this same fiscal year, Planned Parenthood†s total expenses (5,936,000) were in excess of their revenue by twenty-one thousand dollars. They spent about tree million dollars for patient health services and one million on surgical procedures. Over one quarter of a million was spent towards public information and advocacy. And over half a million was spent on education and training. Other funds were spent for special events, fund raising, and administration. At the end of the fiscal report there are ten pages which list the names of those who have made contributions to Planned Parenthood. These donations range from $25,000 or more to $100. PP relies on the contributions of individuals, foundations, and corporations to support their operations and activities in Southeastern PA. All contributions made to PP are tax deductible (Annual Report). I learned a tremendous amount from visiting Planned Parenthood. All of the ideas that I entered the clinic with were quickly proven wrong and limited by the woman that I interviewed. PP is a valuable resource to all women, men, and teens that are interested in maintaining or improving their reproductive health, reproductive education, or their general health. This is a resource that does not receive the publicity or recognition that it deserves. Hopefully the public is aware of what an asset Planned Parenthood is and how much they offer- more than I did before this project. We in Southeastern Pennsylvania are lucky to have PP to turn to for educational and health care needs. How to cite Health Care System of United States, Papers

Plasmodium free essay sample

Trophozoite is surrounded by double layered plasma lemma. Cytoplasm contains Palade’s granules, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome, mitochondria, vesicles and vacuoles having haemozoin. Cytoplasm contains nucleus having nucleolus and granular nucleoplasm. Life Cycle of  Plasmodium  vivax Hosts:- Plasmodium completes its lifecycle in two hosts (digenetic): Man and female Anopheles mosquito. 1. Primary or definitive host: Female Anopheles mosquito is the primary host of Plasmodium in which it completes its sexual life cycle. 2. Secondary or Intermediate host: Man is the secondary host of plasmodium in which it completes its asexual life cycle. The lifecycle of Plasmodium can be divided into three phases: 1. Asexual sehizogony 2. Sexual gamogony 3. Asexual sporogony ASEXUAL CYCLE OF Plasmodium, IN MAN Infective form of Plasmodium is known as sporozoites. Sporozoites are 11-12 µ long slender, uni-nucleated. Sickle-shaped structure present in the salivary glands of infected mosquito. When an infected female Anopheles mosquito bites a healthy man, a large number of sporozoites enter into the blood stream of man. Within half an hour, sporozoites enter the liver cells and undergo asexual multiplication called schizogony. 1. Asexual Schizogony:- Schizogony is the asexual phase of reproduction of Plasmodium. It takes place in liver cells and RBC’s of man. Schizogony can be divided into following phases: a) Pre-erythrocytic schizogony b) Exo-erythrocytic schizogony c) Erythrocytic schizogony d) Post- erythrocytic schizogony a. Pre-erythrocytic schizogony: In the liver cells, sporozoites grow to form a large and spherical schizont. Schizont divides by multiple fission and forms a large number of cryptozoites. They may either pass into the blood circulation to start erythrocytic schizogony or enter fresh liver cells to start Exo-erythrocytic schizogony. Pre-erythrocytic schizogony takes 8 days to complete. b. Exo-erythrocytic schizogony: After re-entering fresh liver cell each cryptozoites divides to form a large number of metacryptozoites similar to pre-erythrocytic schizogony. Meta-cryptozoites are two types: Smaller micro-metacryptozoites and larger macro-metacryptozoites. The micro-metacryptozoites enter the RBC’s to start erythrocytic schizogony, while the macro-metacryptozoites invade fresh liver cells to continue exo-erythrocytic schizogony. It takes normally 4 days to complete. c. Erythrocytic schizogony:- As stated above, the erythrocytic schizogony begins when the RBC’s of blood are attacked either by pre-erythrocytic cryptozoites or by exo-erythrocytic micro-metacryptozoites. It takes normally in 8 to 12 days after above 2 phases. Stages of erythrocytic schizogony are: i. Trophozoite Stage:- The merozoites (cryptozoites and micro- metacryptozoites) after entering into the blood stream, feed on erythrocytes, become rounded and modify into trophozoite. ii. Signet Ring Stage:- As the merozoites grow a vacuole appears in the center and the nucleus is pushed to one side. It gives a ring like appearance and known as signet ring stage. The parasite ingests haemoglobin and decomposes it into protein and haematin. Protein is use as food whereas unused haematin forms toxic. Yellowish brown malarial pigment, haemozoin. iii. Amoeboid Stage: As the signet ring parasite grows, vacuole disappears and the parasite becomes amoeboid in appearance, thrusting out pseudopodial processes. This stage is called amoeboid stage. At this stage RBC develops numerous granules, the Schuffner’s granules. iv. Schizont Stage:- Parasite grows in size, becomes rounded and almost completely fills the RBC called Schizont. . Rosette Stage:- The nucleus of schizont divides by multiple fission to form 6 to 24 daughter nuclei. These nuclei arrange at the periphery, while the toxic haemozoin granules accumulate at the center of RBC. It appears as a flower rose, so called rosette stage. Nuclei of rosette stage are surrounded by a little cytoplasm and are develop into merozoites. With the rupture of the RBC, these merozoites are liberated into the blood plasma along with toxic haemozoin. These normally attack fresh RBC’s to repeat the erythrocytic cycle or may change into gametocytes. One complete erythrocytic cycle takes 48 hours in Plasmodium vivax. d. Post-erythrocytic schizogony:- Sometimes, some merozoites produced in erythrocytic schizogony reach the liver cells and undergo schizogony development in liver cells. This is called post-erythrocytic schizogony. SEXUAL CYCLE OF Plasmodium in MAN 2. Sexual Gamogony:- Formulation of gametocytes: After many generations in about 4-5 is the blood some merozoites increase in size to form two types of gametocytes; larger macro (9-10 µ), less numerous and contain large nucleus. Macro gametocytes are larger (10-12 µ), more numerous and contain smaller nucleus. SEXUAL CYCLE OF Plasmodium IN MOSQUITO When a female Anopheles sucks the blood of a malaria patient, the gametocytes reach the stomach of mosquito and formation of gametes take palace as follows: a. Gametogenesis (gemetogony) : Process of formulation of gametes (male and female gametes). i. Formulation of male gametes: The nucleus of microgametocyte divides to form 6-8 daughter nuclei. The cytoplasm gives out same number of flagella like projections and daughter nuclei enter in each projection. These projections separate from the cytoplasm and form 6-8 haploid microgamete or male gametes. This process of formation of microgamete is called exflagellation. ii. Formation of female gamete:- The mega gametocyte undergoes some reorganization to form a single haploid mega gamete or female gamete which is ready for fertilization. b. Fertilization: The male gamete enters the female gamete through the fertilization cone formed at female gamete and form diploid zygote or synkaryon. Fusion is anisogamous. c. Ookinete stage: The zygote remains inactive for sometimes and then elongates into a worm like Ookinete or vermicule, which is motile. The Ookinete penetrates the stomach wall and comes to lie below its outer epithelial layer. d. Oocyst stage: The Ookinete gets enclosed in a cyst. The encysted zygote is called Oocyst. The Oocyst absorbs nourishment and grows in size. 3. Asexual Sporogony The nucleus of Oocyst divides repeatedly to form a large number of haploid daughter nuclei. At the same time, the cytoplasm develops vacuoles and gives numerous cytoplasmic masses. The daughter nuclei pass into each cytoplasmic mass and develop into slender sickle-shaped sporozoites are formed in each Oocyst. This phase of asexual multiplication is known as sporogony. Lastly, the Oocyet brusts and sporozoites are liberated into the haemolymph of the mosquito. They spread throughout the haemolymph and eventually reach the salivary glands and enter the duct of the hypopharyx. The mosquito is now becomes infective and sporozoites get inoculated or injected the human blood when the mosquito bites. The cycle is repeated. In mosquito whole sexual cycle is completed in 10-12 days. Incubation period: The period between infection and the appearance of first symptoms is called incubation period. It is about 10-14 days in Plasmodium vivax. Pre-patent period: The duration between the initial sporozoites infection and the first appearance of parasites in the blood is called as pre-patent period. It takes about 8 days in Plasmodium vivax. Symptoms of malaria †¢ Mouth becomes dry, nausea and loss of appetite †¢ Headache, muscular pain and joint pain †¢ Chill, fever (106 ° F) and sweating all every 48 hours. †¢ Chill to sweating lasts for 8-10 hours. Liver and spleen become enlarged. †¢ Due to loss of RBC’s anaemia is caused. Control of malaria Malaria can be controlled by three ways 1. Destruction of vector 2. Prevention of infection(prophylaxis) 3. Treatment of patient 4. Public awareness 1. Destruction of vector (Anopheles mosquito) †¢ Mosquito can be killed by spraying DDT, BHC, Dieldrin, Malathion etc. †¢ Filling up ditc hes, gutters and pits where the mosquito breeds. †¢ Water surface can be poisoned by spreading kerosene oil, petroleum etc. †¢ A speedly flow of water prevents the mosquito larva and pupa flourishing. Biological control: Certain fishes (trouts, minnows, stickle back), ducks, dragon flies etc feed on larva and pupa of mosquito. 2. Prevention of infection (Prophylaxis) †¢ Use of mosquito nets. †¢ Screening doors, windows and ventilators. †¢ Using mosquito repellent creams (e. g. odomus), anti mosquito mat (e. g. Supermat) etc. 3. Treatment of patient: There are several drugs that kill different stages of parasite in patient. The oldest drug is Quinine; Paludrine kills almost all stages of parasite. Daraprism (single dose of 25 mg) is the most effective drug. Write short note on Plasmodium falciparum Plasmodium falciparum causes malignant tertian type of malaria. Fever reccurs every second or third day, that is, after 36 to 48 hours. Death rate is very high because the infected red blood corpuscles tend to clump into masses, thus blocking up small blood vessels of internal organs, such as brain, spleen, lungs, etc. It is also known as the tropical epidemic malaria of man. Exo-erythrocytic schizogony is absent in P. falciparum. Read more:  http://www. hsebguides. com/2012/04/plasmodium-vivax-malarial-parasite. html#ixzz2G57xlaK6